The short version of thymic extract fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2025-11-27 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Several names appear in the literature for this peptide, including thymalfasin and the abbreviation T-alpha-1. Naming conventions differ among research articles, regulatory documents, and supplier catalogs, which complicates literature searches. Both synthetic and recombinant production routes yield a peptide with the same 28-residue sequence as the thymic isolate. Because the thymosin label also covers unrelated peptides, sources should be compared by sequence rather than by name alone.
The peptide occurs naturally in thymic tissue and has been detected in serum and other biological fluids. Reported concentrations are low, and reliable measurement generally requires immunoassay or mass spectrometry with an enrichment step. It is released from a larger precursor, prothymosin alpha, by proteolytic cleavage, although the enzymes involved are not fully characterized. Whether circulating levels reflect thymic output specifically remains an open question.
Identity and purity are normally confirmed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The expected mass for the acetylated 28-residue peptide is close to 3108 daltons, and a mass shift indicates a modification or truncation. Peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion can resolve sequence-level questions. Counter-ion content, water content, and residual solvents are separate quality attributes that a certificate of analysis may or may not report. Aggregation is monitored by size-exclusion chromatography when relevant.
Thymosin alpha-1 is supplied as a lyophilized powder in most research settings. The solid dissolves readily in water and in common aqueous buffers, and it is typically reconstituted shortly before use. Solutions are clear and colourless at ordinary working concentrations. Because the peptide is hygroscopic, weighing and reconstitution are usually performed with minimal exposure to ambient air. Aliquots are prepared to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, and working solutions are kept cold.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C129H215N33O55 | Calculated for the acetylated 28-residue peptide |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized solid recovered from aqueous buffer |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Typically dissolved in water or buffer before use |
| Typical storage | -20 C or below, desiccated | Protect from light and avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles |
| Identity testing | Reverse-phase HPLC with mass spectrometry | Retention time and measured mass confirm the sequence |
Practical handling focuses on limiting adsorption and contamination. The peptide dissolves readily in water, and dilute solutions tend to adhere to plastic and glass surfaces, so an inert carrier protein or a defined buffer can reduce losses in laboratory work. Workers also record the counter-ion form, since an acetate or trifluoroacetate salt changes the mass balance of the weighed powder. Documentation of lot number, purity value, and storage history supports reproducibility when results from different laboratories are compared.
Lyophilized material is generally held at reduced temperature to slow degradation, and storage at minus twenty degrees Celsius or lower is common practice for long-term retention. Short-term working portions are often kept between two and eight degrees Celsius. Once dissolved, the peptide is less stable than the dry powder, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are associated with loss of material and with aggregate formation. Vials are usually allowed to reach room temperature before opening so that condensation does not introduce moisture, and solutions are protected from light where practical.
Identity and purity testing for thymosin alpha 1 relies mainly on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Chromatography separates the parent peptide from truncated or modified variants, while mass spectrometry confirms the expected molecular mass. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide additional sequence confirmation. Counterion content, water content, and residual solvents are measured separately as part of specification testing. No single method captures every attribute, so laboratories combine several techniques.
The peptide lacks cysteine, methionine, and tryptophan, so disulfide scrambling and sulfur oxidation are not major degradation routes. Instead, aspartate residues can undergo isomerization or cyclization to succinimide intermediates, generating isoaspartate variants. Hydrolysis of peptide bonds also occurs slowly in solution. These changes may reduce biological activity even when the main peak remains detectable. Stability studies therefore track both potency and the appearance of related substances.
Lyophilized thymosin alpha 1 is typically stored refrigerated at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius and kept away from light. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are usually used promptly after preparation. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided because they can promote aggregation and loss of activity. The peptide adsorbs to some plastic and glass surfaces, so a carrier protein is often added to dilute working solutions. Manufacturer instructions and published protocols both govern handling.
The lyophilized peptide is a white to off-white powder that dissolves freely in water and in aqueous buffers near neutral pH. Because the molecule carries a net negative charge under physiological conditions, saline and phosphate solutions are the usual vehicles, while strongly acidic media are avoided. Stock solutions are commonly divided into small aliquots so that repeated freezing and thawing can be limited, since cycling may encourage aggregation. Solubility in organic solvents is poor and those solvents are seldom used as primary diluents.
Recommended storage for the dry powder is a freezer near minus twenty degrees Celsius, kept desiccated and away from light. Once dissolved, the peptide is less stable and is usually held at two to eight degrees Celsius for short intervals or frozen for longer storage. Stability studies focus on the acetylated terminus and the disulfide linkage because those features define the intact molecule. Common degradation routes include cysteine oxidation, deamidation of asparagine or glutamine side chains, and slow formation of higher-molecular-weight species.
William said in 1985, "We all love The Shangri-Las, and one day we're going to make Shangri-Las records." Jim mentioned his liking for Pink Floyd, Siouxsie and the Banshees, The Monkees, and Muddy Waters. Early demos displayed a similarity to the Ramones, prompting the brothers to add another element to their sound; in William's words: "That's why we started using noise and feedback. We want to make records that sound different." They began playing live in early 1984. In the early days William Reid's guitar would be left out of tune, while Dalglish's drum kit was limited to two drums, and Hart's bass guitar only had three strings, down to two by 1985; in Hart's words, "That's the two I use. I mean what's the fucking point spending money on another two? Two is enough." Struggling to get gigs, the band took to turning up at venues claiming to be the support band, playing their short set and making a quick exit. After failing to generate any interest from concert promoters and record labels in Scotland, the band relocated to Fulham, London, in May 1984, and soon afterwards their demo tape was passed to fellow Scot Alan McGee by Bobby Gillespie. Subsequently, McGee promoted a gig for the band at the Living Room in London in June 1984. On the strength of hearing the band sound check, McGee signed them to his Creation Records label on a one-off deal, and McGee also became the band's manager. Their debut single, "Upside Down", was recorded in October and released in November that year.
=== Acid coagulants === Glucono delta-lactone (GDL) is a naturally occurring organic acid also used in cheesemaking, this coagulant produces a very fine textured tofu that is almost jelly-like. It is used especially for "silken" and softer tofus and confers a faint sour taste to the finished product. GDL is derived from glucose and takes the form of a white powder at room temperature. Its molecular structure contains a six-membered heterocyclic ring that is hydrolyzed upon contact with water, slowly converting GDL to gluconic acid. When added to soy milk, it gradually lowers the pH and causes proteins to coagulate evenly throughout the mixture, forming a single, smooth gel that is free of air gaps and that resists breaking during transportation. Using GDL as a coagulant, silken tofu can be formed directly in its container, as it does not require pressing. This acid coagulant is also commonly used together with calcium sulfate to give soft tofu a smooth, tender texture. Other edible acids can be used. Though they can affect the taste of the tofu more, and vary in density and texture, acids such as acetic acid (vinegar) and citric acid (such as lemon juice), can also be used to coagulate soy milk and produce tofu.
== Early life and education == Robert Finnigan was born on May 27, 1927, in Buffalo, New York, to Charles M. and Marie F. Finnigan. He was one of seven children, who were raised primarily by their father after their mother's early death. Finnigan entered the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, in June 1945, graduating in 1949 with a Bachelor of Science. On April 1, 1950, he married Bette Earl Van Horn at Perrin Air Force Base in Sherman, Texas. The couple had met while he was at Tyndall Air Force Base near Panama City, Florida. Because of his strong interest and aptitude in electrical engineering, he was able to enroll in an Air Force Institute of Technology program that sent qualified officers to graduate school. In 1952, he entered the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, receiving an M.S. in electrical engineering in 1954 and a Ph.D. in electrical engineering in 1957. His master's thesis work with Edward C. Jordan used the ILLIAC to solve complex mathematical functions in antenna theory. For his Ph.D. he researched servomechanism theory with Gilbert Fett, completing the thesis Transient Analysis of Non-Linear Servomechanisms Using Describing Functions with Root-Locus Techniques.
T3 and T4 are carried in the blood, bound to plasma proteins. This has the effect of increasing the half-life of the hormone and decreasing the rate at which it is taken up by peripheral tissues. There are three main proteins that the two hormones are bound to. Thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) is a glycoprotein that has a higher affinity for T4 than for T3. Transthyretin is also a glycoprotein, but only carries T4, with hardly any affinity at all for T3. Finally, both hormones bind with a low affinity to serum albumin, but, due to the large availability of albumin, it has a high capacity. The saturation of binding spots on thyronine-binding globulin (TBG) by endogenous T3 can be estimated by the triiodothyronine resin uptake test. The test is performed by taking a blood sample, to which an excess of radioactive exogenous T3 is added, followed by a resin that also binds T3. A fraction of the radioactive T3 binds to sites on TBG not already occupied by endogenous thyroid hormone, and the remainder binds to the resin. The amount of labeled hormones bound to the resin is then subtracted from the total that was added, with the remainder thus being the amount that was bound to the unoccupied binding sites on TBG.
At present, opium poppies are mostly grown in Afghanistan (224,000 hectares (550,000 acres)), and in Southeast Asia, especially in the region known as the Golden Triangle straddling Burma (57,600 hectares (142,000 acres)), Thailand, Vietnam, Laos (6,200 hectares (15,000 acres)) and Yunnan province in China. There is also cultivation of opium poppies in Pakistan (493 hectares (1,220 acres)), Mexico (12,000 hectares (30,000 acres)) and in Colombia (378 hectares (930 acres)). According to the DEA, the majority of the heroin consumed in the United States comes from Mexico (50%) and Colombia (43–45%) via Mexican criminal cartels such as Sinaloa Cartel. However, these statistics may be significantly unreliable, the DEA's 50/50 split between Colombia and Mexico is contradicted by the amount of hectares cultivated in each country and in 2014, the DEA claimed most of the heroin in the US came from Colombia. As of 2015, the Sinaloa Cartel is the most active drug cartel involved in smuggling illicit drugs such as heroin into the United States and trafficking them throughout the United States. According to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 90% of the heroin seized in Canada (where the origin was known) came from Afghanistan. Pakistan is the destination and transit point for 40 percent of the opiates produced in Afghanistan, other destinations of Afghan opiates are Russia, Europe and Iran.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Gel electrophoresis === Gel electrophoresis has been used in attempts to identify the amino acids present in the organic components of dinosaur eggshell. Contact with human skin can contaminate eggs with foreign amino acids, so only untouched eggs can be investigated using this technique. EDTA can be used to dissolve the calcite of the eggshell while leaving the shell's organic content intact. The resultant organic residue would be blended and then implanted into gel. Electricity would then be run through the sample, causing the amino acids to migrate through the gel until they stop at levels determined by their physical properties. Protein silver stain is then used to dye the amino acids and make them visible. The bands of amino acids from the dinosaur eggs can then be compared with the banding of samples with known composition for identification. Gel electrophoresis is not necessarily a perfect means of discovering the amino acid composition of dinosaur eggshell because sometimes the amount or type of amino acids present could be altered during or after preservation. One potential confounding factor would be the heating of deeply buried egg fossils, which can break down amino acids. Another potential source of error is groundwater, which can leach away amino acids. These issues cast doubt as to whether the results these sorts of studies give are reliable as the actual composition of the eggshell's organic material in life.
In 1957, Polish foreign minister Adam Rapacki proposed the Rapacki Plan for a nuclear free zone in central Europe. Public opinion tended to be favourable in the West, but it was rejected by leaders of West Germany, Britain, France and the United States. They feared it would leave the powerful conventional armies of the Warsaw Pact dominant over the weaker NATO armies. During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city". He gave the United States, Great Britain and France a six-month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors of West Berlin, or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans. Khrushchev earlier explained to Mao Zedong that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin." NATO formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva conference on the German question.
Freezer burn is a condition that occurs when frozen food has been damaged by dehydration and oxidation due to air reaching the food. It is generally caused by food not being securely wrapped in air-tight packaging. Freezer burn appears as grayish-brown leathery spots on frozen food and occurs when air reaches the food's surface and dries the product. Color changes result from chemical changes in the food's pigment. Freezer burn does not make the food unsafe; it merely causes dry spots in foods. The food remains usable and edible, but removing the freezer burns can improve the flavor. The dehydration of freezer-burned food is caused by water sublimating from the food into the surrounding atmosphere. The lost water may then be deposited elsewhere in the food and packaging as snow-like crystals. Fluctuation of temperatures in a freezer, such that the temperature does not remain consistently below −18 °C, can also speed up freezer burn.
Ayahuma bark: Cannon Ball tree. Provides protection and is used in healing susto (soul loss from spiritual fright or trauma). Capirona bark: Provides cleansing, balance and protection. It is noted for its smooth bark, white flowers, and hard wood. Chullachaki caspi bark (Byrsonima christianeae): Provides cleansing to the physical body. Used to transcend physical body ailments. Lopuna blanca bark: Provides protection. Punga amarilla bark: Yellow Punga. Provides protection. Used to pull or draw out negative spirits or energies. Remo caspi bark: Oar Tree. Used to move dense or dark energies. Wyra (huaira) caspi bark (Cedrelinga catanaeformis): Air Tree. Used to create purging, transcend gastro/intestinal ailments, calm the mind, and bring tranquility. Shiwawaku bark: Brings purple medicine to the ceremony. Uchu sanango: Head of the sanango plants. Huacapurana: Giant tree of the Amazon with very hard bark. Bobinsana (Calliandra angustifolia): Mermaid Spirit. Provides major heart chakra opening, healing of emotions and relationships.
=== 2008–2009: Beginnings === Riff Raff started rapping in 2005, making homemade CDs of his rapping over other artists' beats, and passing them out at various malls in the Greater Houston Area including Katy Mills Mall. He credited his early influences being Texas veteran rappers Devin the Dude and Paul Wall. Riff Raff took advantage of social media on Myspace, YouTube and WorldStarHipHop in late 2008, releasing songs, freestyle-videos, and sketch clips, which showcased his talent as slapstick and performance art. He did this with the help of his first talent manager, DB da Boss, whose studio provided recording and video services. DB spoke with LA Weekly about the rapper, saying "He was very driven, very ambitious. You couldn't deny his work ethic", going on to say, "Underneath that shell is a very intelligent man." He looked up to Northside Houston rappers from label Swishahouse, who were blowing up around that time, including Paul Wall, Chamillionaire and Slim Thug. He began doing his hair up in braids popular among "Northsiders" like Slim Thug and shopping for bling at TV Jewelry, a store co-owned by Paul Wall and charismatic Vietnamese immigrant "TV" Johnny Dang, from whom Riff Raff also purchased gold grills. Like many other artists from Houston, Riff Raff also spent much of his time selling CDs at colleges and malls, occasionally alongside other local talent such at Fat Tony and Freestyle Bully. In an effort to get on television he went on many auditions, including for a part in a peanut butter commercial intended for a teenager.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Hemoglobin A1c === Hemoglobin A1c is a measure of the percent of red blood cells that are glycated, or have a glucose molecule attached. This can be used as an indicator of blood glucose level over a longer period of time and is often used to diagnose prediabetes as well as diabetes. HbA1c may not accurately represent blood glucose levels and should not be used in certain medical conditions such as iron-deficiency anemia, Vitamin B12 and folate deficiency, pregnancy, hemolytic anemia, an enlarged spleen, and end-stage kidney failure.
Colyer continued his run of career best form into 2022 playing 18 games in a wing/half-forward role, and kicking multiple goals against GWS and Hawthorn, the latter of which he was arguably best on ground. Colyer signed a one-year contract extension at the end of the season. Colyer missed the first 5 games of the 2023 AFL season after a knee injury sustained during preseason saw him undergo surgery. However, he was not selected by Fremantle for the remainder of the season. Instead, he played for their WAFL affiliated side, Peel Thunder. He kicked two goals in the WAFL Grand Final against East Fremantle. In August, following the final game of Fremantle's season, Colyer along with teammate Nathan Wilson were informed that they would not be offered contracts in 2024, seemingly ending Colyer's football career after 14 years in the AFL.
Frank and John Kirby and their associate Rodney Lester were pioneers in pharmacy automation and small-object counting technology. In 1967, the Kirbys invented a portable digital tablet counter to count tablets and capsules. With Lester, they formed a limited company. In 1970, their invention was patented and put into production in Oldham, England. The tablet counter aided the pharmacy industry with time-consuming manual counting of drug prescriptions. As well as automating labour, early counting machines created consistent and predicable standards for speed and accuracy in medication dispensing. These improvements motivated further innovation aimed at improving safety, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness across the pharmaceutical industry for a wide array of tasks. Today, modern pharmacies choose from a diverse suite of automation technologies specific to their particular workflows.
=== Nucleophilic attack at CO === The CO ligand is often susceptible to attack by nucleophiles. For example, trimethylamine oxide and potassium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide convert CO ligands to CO2 and CN−, respectively. In the "Hieber base reaction", hydroxide ion attacks the CO ligand to give a metallacarboxylic acid, followed by the release of carbon dioxide and the formation of metal hydrides or carbonylmetalates. A well-studied example of this nucleophilic addition is the conversion of iron pentacarbonyl to hydridoiron tetracarbonyl anion:
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a 28-amino-acid peptide originally purified from a bovine thymic extract and later produced synthetically. It is studied mainly for its effects on immune cell function.
No. The two peptides share part of a name but differ in length, sequence, and net charge. Literature searches that treat them as one compound return misleading results.
Solid-phase peptide synthesis is the usual route, and recombinant expression has also been described. Both approaches produce material matching the natural sequence.
Lyophilized powder is normally kept at minus twenty degrees Celsius or below, in a sealed container, desiccated and away from light. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are usually refrigerated and used quickly. Repeated temperature cycling should be avoided.