Everything below concerns thymosin alpha-1. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2025-11-21. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
Clinical interest has centered on chronic viral hepatitis, on immune restoration in various conditions, and on use as an adjuvant intended to improve responses to vaccines. Trials have reported mixed results, and regulatory status differs sharply between countries; in some places it is a prescription product, while elsewhere it is sold without an approved therapeutic indication. Because published studies vary widely in design, population, and endpoints, comparisons across them are difficult and no single conclusion covers the whole literature.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide of 28 amino acid residues that derives from the amino terminal region of a larger precursor protein known as prothymosin alpha. The peptide carries an acetyl group on its first residue and contains no disulfide bonds or carbohydrate chains. Its sequence is highly conserved across mammalian species, which is one reason laboratories treat it as a molecule with a defined and reproducible structure rather than a variable tissue extract. The name follows an early naming convention for thymus-derived fractions and does not imply that the peptide acts as a hormone in the classical endocrine sense.
Biologically, the peptide is studied mainly in the context of immune cell development and regulation. It is produced in the thymus and in several other tissues, and it appears to influence the maturation and activity of T cells and other immune populations. Laboratory work describes effects on cytokine production, on the balance between T cell subsets, and on the function of dendritic cells. Much of this evidence comes from cell culture and animal models, so the extent to which the same pathways operate in humans remains an open question.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
Whether the free 28-residue peptide circulates in human tissue remains debated. The best-documented human source is prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein that carries the sequence at its N-terminus. Reports of measurable peptide levels in serum and lymphoid tissue exist, yet some of that signal may come from cross-reacting fragments or from the parent protein. Most reviews therefore treat prothymosin alpha as the established human molecule and describe independent circulation of the small peptide as an unresolved question.
Immunological studies connect the peptide to multiple parts of the immune response. It has been reported to engage Toll-like receptor signaling, to promote dendritic cell maturation, and to influence the balance of T helper cell subsets. Changes in natural killer cell activity and in cytokine release appear in cell culture and animal models. These observations describe broad immunomodulatory behavior rather than a single defined receptor target, and the primary molecular interaction has not been settled.
Thymosin alpha 1 is approved as a medicine in several countries, including Italy and China, for indications such as chronic hepatitis B and as an immune adjuvant. It is not approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration as a therapeutic product. In research settings the peptide appears in studies of sepsis, vaccine response, and oncology support, often with mixed or inconclusive results. The evidence base is uneven, and reviews note that many trials were small. Regulatory status therefore differs widely between jurisdictions.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a synthetic 28-amino-acid peptide first isolated in 1966 from thymosin fraction 5, a bovine thymus extract. Its chain begins with an acetylated serine residue and ends with asparagine. The native peptide carries a molecular mass near 3,108 daltons. Researchers classify it as an immunomodulatory agent rather than a hormone with a single endocrine target. Early work framed it as a thymus-derived factor that supports T-cell maturation. The synthetic form used in research and clinical products matches the natural sequence.
Is produced at a distillery in Scotland from water and malted barley (to which only whole grains of other cereals may be added) all of which have been: Processed at that distillery into a mash Converted at that distillery to a fermentable substrate only by endogenous enzyme systems Fermented at that distillery only by adding yeast Has been distilled at an alcoholic strength by volume of less than 94.8% (190 US proof) Is wholly matured in an excise warehouse in Scotland in oak casks of a capacity not exceeding 700 litres (185 US gal; 154 imp gal) for at least three years Retains the colour, aroma, and taste of the raw materials used in, and the method of, its production and maturation Contains no added substances, other than water and plain (E150A) caramel colouring Has a minimum alcoholic strength by volume of 40% (80 US proof) The Scotch Whisky Association acts as the regulatory body that ensures that Scotch Whisky is produced in accordance with traditional practices, as well as ensuring a sustainable future for the Scotch Whisky industry by promoting sustainable production, global trade, and responsible consumption.
==== IDF's use of white phosphorus ==== On 31 October 2023, after an investigation, Amnesty International stated that an Israeli white phosphorus attack on 16 October was indiscriminate, unlawful, and "must be investigated as a war crime", due to its use on the populated Lebanese town of Dhayra, which injured at least nine civilians. On 2 November, Amnesty International stated its investigations into four incidents on 10, 11, 16 and 17 October showed Israel had used white phosphorus munitions. The claim was confirmed by the Washington Post, which identified two white phosphorus shell casings made in the U.S. Human Rights Watch verified IDF's use of white phosphorus in at least 17 municipalities in Lebanon, including five municipalities where airburst munitions were used over residential areas. It also called on the Lebanese government to file a declaration to enable investigations in the International Criminal Court. In southern Lebanon, Israel's white phosphorus bombs have destroyed over 4,500 hectares (45 million m2) of forest with economic loses being valued at US$20 million. The American University of Beirut estimated use of white phosphorus has led to more than 134 forest fires as of June 2024 burning 1,500 hectares (15 million m2) of land. As of 28 May 2024, the Lebanese Ministry of Public Health said that exposure to white phosphorus had injured at least 173 people.
thio-phosphorylated derivatives of resorcinols and calixarenes; studying thio-phosphorylated unsaturated compounds using petrochemical and wood-chemical feedstock; generation and theoretical study of phosphabetains and their derivatives (phosphonium salts, carboxyl-containing metal complexes); searching for liquid growth-boosting fertilizer compounds based on microelements. The following majors are currently offered to students: 04.03.01 Chemistry, Bachelor's degree program; 04.05.01 Fundamental and Applied Chemistry, Specialist Degree program; 04.04.01 Chemistry, Master's degree program; 44.03.01 Pedagogical Education, Bachelor's degree program. The following master's degree programs are offered by the Institute in the academic year 2015–2016:
== Uranium-239 == Uranium-239 is usually produced by exposing 238U to neutron radiation in a nuclear reactor. 239U has a half-life of about 23.45 minutes and beta decays into neptunium-239, with a total decay energy of about 1.29 MeV. The most common gamma decay at 74.660 keV accounts for the difference in the two major channels of beta emission energy, at 1.28 and 1.21 MeV. 239Np then, with a half-life of about 2.356 days, beta-decays to plutonium-239.
Extraction of lithium, nickel, and cobalt, manufacture of solvents, and mining byproducts present significant environmental and health hazards. Lithium extraction can be fatal to aquatic life due to water pollution. It is known to cause surface water contamination, drinking water contamination, respiratory problems, ecosystem degradation and landscape damage. It also leads to unsustainable water consumption in arid regions (1.9 million liters per ton of lithium). Massive byproduct generation of lithium extraction also presents unsolved problems, such as large amounts of magnesium and lime waste. Lithium mining takes place in North and South America, Asia, South Africa, Australia, and China. Cobalt for Li-ion batteries is largely mined in the Congo (see also Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Open-pit cobalt mining has led to deforestation and habitat destruction in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Open-pit nickel mining has led to environmental degradation and pollution in developing countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia. In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of deforestation in Indonesia. Manufacturing a kg of Li-ion battery takes about 67 megajoules (MJ) of energy. The global warming potential of lithium-ion batteries manufacturing strongly depends on the energy source used in mining and manufacturing operations, and is difficult to estimate, but one 2019 study estimated 73 kg CO2e/kWh. Effective recycling can reduce the carbon footprint of the production significantly.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== 3-2-1 Backup Rule === The backup data needs to be stored, requiring a backup rotation scheme, which is a system of backing up data to computer media that limits the number of backups of different dates retained separately, by appropriate re-use of the data storage media by overwriting of backups no longer needed. The scheme determines how and when each piece of removable storage is used for a backup operation and how long it is retained once it has backup data stored on it. The 3-2-1 rule can aid in the backup process. It states that there should be at least 3 copies of the data, stored on 2 different types of storage media, and one copy should be kept offsite, in a remote location (this can include cloud storage). 2 or more different media should be used to eliminate data loss due to similar reasons (for example, optical discs may tolerate being underwater while LTO tapes may not, and SSDs cannot fail due to head crashes or damaged spindle motors since they do not have any moving parts, unlike hard drives). An offsite copy protects against fire, theft of physical media (such as tapes or discs) and natural disasters like floods and earthquakes. Physically protected hard drives are an alternative to an offsite copy, but they have limitations like only being able to resist fire for a limited period of time, so an offsite copy still remains as the ideal choice. Because there is no perfect storage, many backup experts recommend maintaining a second copy on a local physical device, even if the data is also backed up offsite.
=== Autism === James is best known for her autism-related research. Regarding autism, James' view is that the transsulfuration pathway is disrupted in autistic children, resulting in these children being deficient in glutathione, as well as vitamins such as vitamin B6 and vitamin B12, and that maternal glutathione deficiency may also be a risk factor for autism. She has also claimed that administering these compounds as supplements, as well as methylcobalamin and folinic acid, to autistic children can significantly restore their levels of glutathione and cysteine and may therefore be useful in the treatment of autism. In addition, she has speculated that autistic children possess an impaired methylation capacity and that, according to a study she presented at the 2005 Experimental Biology conference, they have a unique biological "fingerprint" in their blood which neurotypical children lack. With regard to this particular study, James said, "One interpretation of this finding is that children with autism would be less able to detoxify and eliminate these heavy metals." According to the official blog of Autism Speaks, James found that autistic children exhibit abnormal folate metabolism that is detectable by higher levels of plasma homocysteine, adenosine, and S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine in the mothers of these children. Her glutathione-related research has been cited by anti-vaccine activists, such as Robert F.
== Function in protein termination == Protein elongation continues until a stop codon appears on the mRNA. A Class I release factor (RF1 or RF2) binds to the stop codon, which induces hydrolysis of the tRNA-peptide bond in the P site, allowing the newly-formed protein to exit the ribosome. The nascent peptide continues to fold and leaves the 70S ribosome, the mRNA, the deacylated tRNA (P site), and the Class I release factor (A site). In a GTP-dependent manner, the subsequent recycling is catalyzed by a Class II release factor named RF3/prfC, Ribosome recycling factor (RRF), Initiation Factor 3 (IF3) and EF-G. The protein RF3 releases the Class I release factor so that it may occupy the ribosomal A site. EF-G hydrolyzes GTP and undergoes a large conformational change to push RF3 down the ribosome, which occurs alongside tRNA dissociation and promotes the ribosomal subunit rotation. This motion actively splits the B2a/B2b bridge, which connects the 30S and the 50S subunits, so that the ribosome can split. IF3 then isolates the 30S subunit to prevent re-association of the large and small subunits.
PCR allows rapid production of short pieces of DNA, even when not more than the sequence of the two primers is known. This ability of PCR augments many methods, such as generating hybridization probes for Southern or northern blot hybridization. PCR supplies these techniques with large amounts of pure DNA, sometimes as a single strand, enabling analysis even from very small amounts of starting material. The task of DNA sequencing can also be assisted by PCR. Known segments of DNA can easily be produced from a patient with a genetic disease mutation. Modifications to the amplification technique can extract segments from a completely unknown genome, or can generate just a single strand of an area of interest. PCR has numerous applications to the more traditional process of DNA cloning. It can extract segments for insertion into a vector from a larger genome, which may be only available in small quantities. Using a single set of 'vector primers,' it can also analyze or extract fragments that have already been inserted into vectors. Some alterations to the PCR protocol can generate mutations (general or site-directed) of an inserted fragment. Sequence-tagged sites is a process where PCR is used as an indicator that a particular segment of a genome is present in a particular clone. The Human Genome Project found this application vital to mapping the cosmid clones they were sequencing and to coordinating the results from different laboratories.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== International === There are regular regional and international educational medical physics activities. The oldest of these is the International College on Medical Physics at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste, Italy. This College has educated more than 1000 medical physicists from developing countries.
==== Liquid junction interface ==== This technique uses a stainless steel tee to mix separation electrolyte from CE capillary with make up liquid. The CE capillary and ESI needle are inserted through opposite sides of the tee and a narrow gap is maintained. The electrical contact is established by makeup liquid surrounding the junction between two capillaries. This system is easy to operate. However, the sensitivity is reduced and the mixing of two liquids could degrade separation. One of the kind of liquid junction interfaces is pressurized liquid junction, where pressure is applied to reservoir with makeup liquid. In this method dilution is less than in traditional liquid junction interface due to low flow rates (less than 200 nl/min). Besides, additional pressure prevents defocusing of the CE effluent and, as a result, resolution increases.
== Toxicity == Toxic effects of retinoids occur with both acute and prolonged intake, depending on which retinoid is considered. The specific toxicity is related to the mechanism of action as well as exposure. A medical sign of chronic or acute poisoning with retinol is hypervitaminosis A, which includes the presence of painful, tender swellings on the long bones. Anorexia, skin lesions, hair loss, hepatosplenomegaly, papilloedema, bleeding, general malaise, pseudotumor cerebri, and death may also occur. Retinoids provoke rapid elevation of circulating triglycerides leading to hypertriglyceridemia as well as cholesterol, leading to hypercholesterolemia. Retinoids are further shown to worsen many metabolic diseases, such as diabetes and congestive heart failure. Large-scale randomized, controlled clinical trials have conclusively shown that vitamin A, retinol, and other retinoids increase mortality and cancer rates in smokers and asbestos workers. In addition to the harmful effects shared by other retinoids, bexarotene causes severe hypothyroidism. The Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee (PRAC), based on its review, confirmed that taking oral retinoids during pregnancy can have harmful effects on the baby as they may cause CNS, cranio-facial, cardiovascular and other defects. The use of acitretin, alitretinoin and isotretinoin should be prohibited in women of childbearing age unless they take measures to prevent pregnancy. Many lotions that claim to prevent or treat stretch marks contain retinol, which is not an ingredient that is safe for pregnant women.
The tax level as well as the government expenditure level in Denmark ranks among the highest in the world, which is traditionally ascribed to the Nordic model of which Denmark is an example, including the welfare state principles which historically evolved during the 20th century. In 2022, the official Danish tax level amounted to 42.2% of GDP. The all-record highest Danish tax level was 49.8% of GDP, reached in 2014 because of high extraordinary one-time tax revenues caused by a reorganization of the Danish-funded pension system. The Danish tax-to-GDP-ratio of 42% was the seventh-highest among all OECD countries in 2022, after France, Norway, Austria, Finland, Italy and Belgium. The OECD average was 34%. The tax structure of Denmark (the relative weight of different taxes) also differs from the OECD average, as the Danish tax system in 2015 was characterized by substantially higher revenues from taxes on personal income, whereas on the other hand, no revenues at all derive from social security contributions. A lower proportion of revenues in Denmark derive from taxes on corporate income and gains and property taxes than in OECD generally, whereas the proportion deriving from payroll taxes, VAT, and other taxes on goods and services correspond to the OECD average. In 2016, the average marginal tax rate on labour income for all Danish tax-payers was 38.9%. The average marginal tax on personal capital income was 30.7%.
==== Antimicrobial ==== Introduction of silver into bacterial cells induces a high degree of structural and morphological changes, which can lead to cell death. As the silver nanoparticles come in contact with the bacteria, they adhere to the cell wall and cell membrane. Once bound, some of the silver passes through to the inside, and interacts with phosphate-containing compounds like DNA and RNA, while another portion adheres to the sulfur-containing proteins on the membrane. The silver-sulfur interactions at the membrane cause the cell wall to undergo structural changes, like the formation of pits and pores. Through these pores, cellular components are released into the extracellular fluid, simply due to the osmotic difference. Within the cell, the integration of silver creates a low molecular weight region where the DNA then condenses. Having DNA in a condensed state inhibits the cell's replication proteins contact with the DNA. Thus the introduction of silver nanoparticles inhibits replication and is sufficient to cause the death of the cell. Further increasing their effect, when silver comes in contact with fluids, it tends to ionize which increases the nanoparticles' bactericidal activity. This has been correlated to the suppression of enzymes and inhibited expression of proteins that relate to the cell's ability to produce ATP.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
The name reflects an early convention for naming thymus-derived fractions. The peptide is characterized and measured as a defined molecule, and it does not operate through a single classical endocrine axis.